Treated wastewater is an important source of water for irrigation. As a result, irrigated crops are chronically exposed to wastewater-derived pharmaceuticals, such as the anticonvulsant drug lamotrigine. Lamotrigine is known to be taken up by plants, but its plant-derived metabolites and their distribution in different plant organs are unknown. This study aimed to detect and identify metabolites of lamotrigine in cucumber plants grown for 35 days in a hydroponic solution by using LC-MS/MS (Orbitrap) analysis. Our data showed that 96% of the lamotrigine taken up was metabolized. Sixteen metabolites possessing a lamotrigine core structure were detected. Reference standards confirmed two; five were tentatively identified, and nine molecular formulas were assigned. The data suggest that lamotrigine is metabolized via N-carbamylation, N-glucosidation, N-alkylation, N-formylation, N-oxidation, and amidine hydrolysis. The metabolites LTG-N2-oxide, M284, M312, and M370 were most likely produced in the roots and were translocated to the leaves. Metabolites M272, M312, M314, M354, M368, M370, and M418 were dominant in leaves. Only a few metabolites were detected in the fruits. With an increasing exposure time, lamotrigine leaf concentrations decreased because of continuous metabolism. Our data showed that the metabolism of lamotrigine in a plant is fast and that a majority of metabolites are concentrated in the roots and leaves.

In response to the decline in natural water sources, treated wastewater (TWW) has been introduced into the water cycle as a new water source for irrigation. However, this practice exposes the agricultural environment to various contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). To better understand their fate in the soil and to effectively predict their bioavailability for plant uptake, there is a need to quantify their concentrations in soil solutions. In this study, we examined the concentration of TWW-derived CECs in soil solution under three scenarios: (1) shifting from irrigation with freshwater (FW) to TWW (FW→TWW), (2) long-term continuous irrigation with TWW (TWW→TWW), and (3) prolonged irrigation with TWW followed by FW (TWW→FW). Carbamazepine, 1H-benzotriazole, lamotrigine, venlafaxine, and thiabendazole were ubiquitous in the TWW (mean concentrations of 125, 945, 180, 3630, and 90 ng/L, respectively) and irrigated soils. Interestingly, their concentrations in the soil solutions were not similar (higher or lower) to the corresponding concentrations in the irrigation water. In both the FW→TWW and TWW→FW irrigation scenarios, lower CECs concentrations were observed in soil solutions compared to the TWW→TWW scenario, indicating that a steady-state condition was not achieved after a single irrigation season (FW→TWW). For example, the concentrations of 1H-benzotriazole in Nir Oz soil solutions were 638, 310, and 1577 ng/L for the three irrigation scenarios (FW→TWW, TWW→FW, and TWW→TWW), respectively. Moreover, CECs concentrations in soil solutions were slightly lower in the TWW→FW irrigation scenario compared to the TWW→TWW scenario. This suggests that rain-fed crops are also exposed to TWW-derived CECs released from the adsorbed phase into the soil solution. The readily available CEC concentration in soil solutions depends on the soil irrigation history and the CEC concentration in the irrigation water, the soil characteristics, and the physicochemical properties of the CEC.

The exposure of plants to pharmaceuticals via treated wastewater irrigation and biosolid application presents an important route of chronic exposure of crops to a wide variety of bioactive pollutants. This paper presents a novel approach which aims to improve our understanding of the interactions of bioactive pollutants with plants through the concept of plant pharmacology and two main sub-divisions: (i) plant pharmacokinetics which describes the fate of exogenous xenobiotics in the plant based on the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and accumulation (ADMA), processes that are analogous to pharmacokinetics in animals; and (ii) plant pharmacodynamics that proposes that exogenous xenobiotics interact with plant enzymes and biochemical pathways, establishing a relationship with pharmacological concepts and emphasizing the importance of exposure-response interactions. The concept of plant pharmacology and its two subdivisions provide a foundation for the development of in-depth knowledge regarding the fate of xenobiotics in plants and establishing plant pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic models that include both the ADMA processes and time-dependent response of the plant to these compounds. This concept provides a new perspective on pharmacovigilance, focusing on plant-xenobiotic compound interactions, and a conceptual framework for understanding the fate and interactions of these bioactive molecules in agricultural systems, to enable more accurate risks assessments of environmental and human health.

Alternative water sources for agriculture are in high demand in a world with diminishing fresh water (FW) availability. Treated wastewater (TWW) offers a reliable alternative, but increasing evidence is pointing to damage to TWW irrigated orchards planted in clay soils related to soil hypoxia. The mechanisms responsible for this hypoxia have not been extensively studied to date. The aim of this study was to elucidate meaningful insights into the mechanisms responsible for the hypoxia in TWW irrigated orchards planted in clay soils using a novel approach whereby parameters describing the soil oxygen and water temporal dynamics are analyzed. To that end, soil oxygen and soil water tension (SWT) measurements from a two year field experiment comparing TWW to FW irrigation in an avocado orchard planted in a clay soil (60 % clay) were used. The deterioration in oxygen levels occurred as the irrigation season progressed, and the oxygen availability decreased with depth (10-35 cm depth). During August-September, when the lowest oxygen concentrations were measured, the water content at which oxygen supply matched oxygen consumption at 35-cm depth did not differ between treatments (similar to 50 mbar), but the TWW irrigated soil experienced similar to 47 % more time at wetter conditions. Lower oxygen decline rates were observed in the TWW irrigated plots which countered the previous concept that TWW leads to increased soil oxygen consumption. The findings point towards the rate of soil drying as the prime cause of differences - TWW irrigated plots dried in a rate which is nearly 4-times smaller than that in FW irrigated plots during the dark and light hours, reflecting slower drainage and water uptake respectively. It is suggested that soil hypoxia induced by the low soil drainage in TWW irrigated clay soils impairs tree water uptake, which further hinders the soil oxygen levels. Based on these results management tools are suggested to allow sustainable irrigation with TWW in the future. Furthermore, the work demonstrates how analysis of parameters describing the oxygen hourly changes can be utilized to gain mechanistic insights unto processes affecting the oxygen regime in the soil.

The exposure of plants to pharmaceuticals via treated wastewater irrigation and biosolid application presents an important route of chronic exposure of crops to a wide variety of bioactive pollutants. This paper presents a novel approach which aims to improve our understanding of the interactions of bioactive pollutants with plants through the concept of plant pharmacology and two main sub-divisions: (i) plant pharmacokinetics which describes the fate of exogenous xenobiotics in the plant based on the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and accumulation (ADMA), processes that are analogous to pharmacokinetics in animals; and (ii) plant pharmacodynamics that proposes that exogenous xenobiotics interact with plant enzymes and biochemical pathways, establishing a relationship with pharmacological concepts and emphasizing the importance of exposure-response interactions. The concept of plant pharmacology and its two subdivisions provide a foundation for the development of in-depth knowledge regarding the fate of xenobiotics in plants and establishing plant pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic models that include both the ADMA processes and time-dependent response of the plant to these compounds. This concept provides a new perspective on pharmacovigilance, focusing on plant-xenobiotic compound interactions, and a conceptual framework for understanding the fate and interactions of these bioactive molecules in agricultural systems, to enable more accurate risks assessments of environmental and human health.

Polyhalite is a natural mineral containing potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S) and is proposed as a fertilizer source for these essential nutrients. Application of polyhalite is expected to be most relevant in soils where the availability of these nutrients is low: in sandy soils, in highly leached soils, or in areas where crops are irrigated by water with low content of these nutrients or are rain-fed. A controlled lysimeter experiment investigated the efficacy of surface applied polyhalite as a fertilizer supplying K, Ca, Mg and S compared to soluble sulfate salts in two soils (sandy and loamy) with or without simulated rain leaching events through two cycles of cropping. In the first cycle, carrot response and nutrient uptake, transport, and loss through leaching were studied, while in the second cycle the residual effect of the fertilizer was considered on maize without additional fertilizer application or leaching. Polyhalite plus rain led to increased carrot yield due to augmented Ca uptake in sandy soil. In both soils, polyhalite behaved as a prolonged availability fertilizer with more nutrients retained in the top soil layer and not leached below the root zone. The treatments did not affect maize growth or nutrient uptake except for lower K and S uptake in soils where rain had been simulated for the previous crop. We conclude that polyhalite shows potential as a commercial fertilizer to supply K, Ca, Mg, and S nutrients under conditions of dryland agriculture where occasionally leaching by rainfall occurs.

Carbamazepine and lamotrigine prescribed antiepileptic drugs are highly persistent in the environment and were detected in crops irrigated with reclaimed wastewater. This study reports pharmacokinetics of the two drugs and their metabolites in cucumber plants under hydroponic culture, testing their uptake, translocation, and transformation over 96 h in single and bisolute systems at varying pH. Ruling out root adsorption and transformations in the nutrient solution, we demonstrate that carbamazepine root uptake is largely affected by the concentration gradient across the membrane. Unlike carbamazepine, lamotrigine is adsorbed to the root and undergoes ion trapping in root cells thus its translocation to the shoots is limited. On the basis of that, carbamazepine uptake was not affected by the presence of lamotrigine, while lamotrigine uptake was enhanced in the presence of carbamazepine. Transformation of carbamazepine in the roots was slightly reduced in the presence of lamotrigine. Carbamazepine metabolism was far more pronounced in the shoots than in the roots, indicating that most of the metabolism occurs in the leaves, probably due to higher concentration and longer residence time. This study indicates that the uptake of small nonionic pharmaceuticals is passive and governed by diffusion across the root membrane.Carbamazepine and lamotrigine prescribed antiepileptic drugs are highly persistent in the environment and were detected in crops irrigated with reclaimed wastewater. This study reports pharmacokinetics of the two drugs and their metabolites in cucumber plants under hydroponic culture, testing their uptake, translocation, and transformation over 96 h in single and bisolute systems at varying pH. Ruling out root adsorption and transformations in the nutrient solution, we demonstrate that carbamazepine root uptake is largely affected by the concentration gradient across the membrane. Unlike carbamazepine, lamotrigine is adsorbed to the root and undergoes ion trapping in root cells thus its translocation to the shoots is limited. On the basis of that, carbamazepine uptake was not affected by the presence of lamotrigine, while lamotrigine uptake was enhanced in the presence of carbamazepine. Transformation of carbamazepine in the roots was slightly reduced in the presence of lamotrigine. Carbamazepine metabolism was far more pronounced in the shoots than in the roots, indicating that most of the metabolism occurs in the leaves, probably due to higher concentration and longer residence time. This study indicates that the uptake of small nonionic pharmaceuticals is passive and governed by diffusion across the root membrane.

The gram-negative bacterium Acidovorax citrulli causes bacterial fruit blotch (BFB) disease of cucurbits, which represents a serious threat to melon and watermelon production worldwide. To date, there are no efficient means to manage the disease, and reliable resistance sources for cucurbit germplasm are lacking. Mineral nutrition markedly affects plant diseases. Recently, we reported that disease severity on melon foliage and A. citrulli growth in the leaf tissue were significantly influenced by the form of nitrogen supply. In the present study, we investigated the influence of potassium nutrition on BFB severity and A. citrulli establishment in the foliage of melon plants. Fertilization with relatively low concentrations of potassium increased these variables compared with higher potassium concentrations. Since establishment of A. citrulli during the growing season is assumed to increase the incidence of fruit infection, the fact that mineral nutrition influences BFB incidence in the plant foliage is of particular importance.

Abstract The main objective of the study was to test the benefits of compost and zeolite co-addition on the fertility of organic-rich Mediterranean soils. Previous pot study in greenhouse found that zeolites mixed with compost significantly improved potassium availability as well as exchangeable potassium capacity in the soils. To further test this finding, a field experiment was conducted using potato – Solanum tuberosum L., desiree cultivar in peat soils of the Hula Valley, Israel. Adhering to the protocol of the greenhouse experiments, the treatments included 5% compost addition with no zeolites, 2% zeolite addition without compost, co-addition of 5% compost mixed with 2% zeolites and control. We found that compost addition increased significantly the potatoes yield and the number of large tubers; however, the zeolite addition had no impact on yield. Co-addition of compost and zeolites did not improve total crop yield or number of large tubers compared with compost addition only. The results are consistent with nutrients availability (N, P, K) across the treatments. In a commercialized field using the experiment conditions, the 2% zeolite addition would amount to 18 ton of zeolites per hectare. Hence, we conclude that soil amendment with the tested zeolite might be beneficial to improve soil retention for cationic nutrients (e.g. K+) under high leaching systems such as plant culture in pots, but in the field with high loads of compost, its effect is minor.

Bacterial fruit blotch (BFB) of cucurbits, caused by the seed-borne bacterium Acidovorax citrulli, is a destructive disease that threatens the melon and watermelon industries worldwide. The available means to manage the disease are very limited and there are no reliable sources of BFB resistance. Mineral nutrition has marked effects on plant diseases. To the best of our knowledge, no studies reporting effects of mineral nutrition on BFB severity have been reported to date. In the present study we assessed the influence of nitrogen nutrition on BFB severity and A. citrulli establishment in the foliage of melon plants under greenhouse conditions. Our results show that nitrogen fertilization, based on nitrate only, led to reduced disease severity and bacterial numbers in melon leaves, as compared with two combinations of nitrate and ammonium. No consistent effect of nitrogen nutrition on expression of several plant defense-associated transcripts was found, except for hydroperoxide lyase (HPL), which upon inoculation was repressed to a greater extent under the “nitrate-only” nitrogen regime compared with combined nitrate and ammonium. Reducing BFB severity and A. citrulli establishment in the plant foliage are of particular importance since establishment of the pathogen during the growing season is assumed to increase the incidence of fruit infection, leading to serious yield losses. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which nitrogen nutrition influences BFB development, and to assess the effects of nitrogen as well as other minerals on the disease under field conditions.